How to Update WordPress Automatically Use This Handy Plugin

Keeping your site’s theme, plugins, and WordPress core updated is one of the most important jobs you can do. However, its also something thats easy to overlook its happened to everyone! That’s why were going to show you how to update WordPress automatically using a free plugin.In this post, youll learn:The importance of keeping your WordPress website updated.Why Easy Updates Manager is a good choice to update WordPress automatically.How to install Easy Updates Manager on your website.How to configure the different settings and functions that Easy Updates Manager provides. Sucuri found that  61% of the hacked WordPress sites they looked at were running  out-of-date software when they got hacked. So theres a major correlation between a lack of updates and which sites get hacked.How to update WordPress automatically with a free plugin Easy Updates Manager Author(s): Easy Updates Manager TeamCurrent Version: 8.1.0Last Updated: October 17, 2019stops-core-theme-and-p lugin-updates.8.1.0.zip 96%Ratings 2,544,808Downloads WP 4.6+Requires To update your WordPress site automatically, you can use Easy Updates Manager. Recently acquired by UpdraftPlus, this free plugin lets you configure all the updates on your site, including:WordPress core updatesPlugin updates, including different settings for different pluginsTheme updates, including different settings for different themesHeres how to use itInstalling Easy Updates ManagerEasy Updates Manager is listed at the WordPress.org plugin repository, so to install it on your site, you just need to head to Plugins Add New.Then, on the Add Plugins page, type Easy Updates Manager into the Search function.When you see the plugins listing, click Install Now Activate.Configuring Easy Updates ManagerTo set up Easy Updates Manager, select Dashboard Updates Options.Here you have a number of tabs, under which you can configure the update options for your website.Automatic updatesUnder General, you will find A utomatic Updates.By selecting On, your site will automatically updateThe core WordPress softwareAll themesAll pluginsTurning this  On is the simplest way to enable automatic updates for your site.If you want more control over your automatic updates, though, you can choose  Custom  instead.When you select  Custom, youll open up an additional set of options with more settings. Youll be able to  Enable or Disable these options†¦Major ReleasesMinor ReleasesDevelopment UpdatesTranslation UpdatesAutomatic Plugin UpdatesAutomatic Theme UpdatesBoth Automatic Plugin Updates and Automatic Theme Updates provide the extra option of Select Individually.This feature enables you to activate automatic updates for specific plugins or themes and not others (this is covered in more detail next).Automatic plugin and theme updatesTo configure the plugin updates options, select the  Plugins tab at the top of the page.Here you will find an alphabetical list of all the plugins that are ins talled on your WordPress website. You can then scroll down the page and activate Automatic Updates for the plugins of your choice.There is also the option of applying bulk actions to your plugins to speed up the customization process if you wish.Automatic theme updates work in the same way. Simply toggle to  Themes  and then turn on  Automatic Updates  for the appropriate themes.After you have completed any customizations, Easy Updates Manager will then update WordPress automatically according to your settings.LogsUnder the  General tab, you will find another interesting feature   Logs. By activating  Logs, Easy Updates Manager will create a log of updates so you can view a list of recent updates.To turn on logs, select Enable Logs. Easy Updates Manager will now add a Logs  tab to the menu bar at the top of the page. Under this tab, you will find a list of updates for WordPress core, themes, and plugins.And thats all you need to know to start using Easy Updates Manag er!Update WordPress automaticallybut safelyAutomatic updates are great because theyre convenient. But they can  potentially be dangerous because if anything goes wrong, youre not around to fix the issue.To limit any potential problems, make sure to still follow good update best practices  like regularly backing up your site.Final thoughts on how to update WordPress automaticallyKeeping your website updated is a crucial element of running a successful website. Using Easy Updates Manager is an extremely effective way to automate updates and help ensure your website is fully functioning, as well as safe and secure. Your websites speed, performance, and usability will also benefit. This makes Easy Updates Manager a must-have plugin for all WordPress websites.Do you have any questions about using Easy Updates Manager? Please feel free to ask away in the comments below Want to save time? Here's how to update #WordPress automatically #tutorial

Visual Perception Development Essays - Vision, Sensory Systems

Visual Perception Development Essays - Vision, Sensory Systems Visual Perception Development Devlopment of Visual Perception The development of visual perception changes through the caurse of life time from birth through adulthood. Sight is produced by taking stimulation in the form of light and converting it to electrochemical signals to the brain. Most of the development of visual perception takes place in infants and then declines in old age. In Young infants is when visual perception begins to grow and develop. A new born can see changes in brightness and is able to see the world in color. Earlier diserves believed new borns could only see in black and white. At four months babies seem to discriminate between colors where as a new born can see color but unable to discrimninate between differences. Babies prefer objects with a pattern as opposed to a blank object. Taking this knowledge observes came up with a way of mearuring babies eyesight by presenting a pair of disks with a pattern and gradually increasing the fine-grained stip disk to find the point where the baby cannot tell the difference between a pattern and a blank disk. The observes found that newborns can have as poor of an eyesight as 20/600 wich means object that adults can see 600 feet away a newborn can see only 20 feet away. Objects to infants are blurry that are more than eight inches from their face unless the object is bold and has an extreme light/dar k contrast (Singelman 145). Altgought babies are unable to discrminate between color, they can discriminate between different patterns. Robert Fantz, during the ealry 1960s, found that babies less than two days old can differenciate visual forms. Babies being attracted to visual forms show to take great interenst in the patterns in the human face. Young infants are also attracted to moving objects. Even though infants tracking of moving objects has not matured yet and moving things can be lost unless its moving very slow a moving object is more apt to gain a babies attention than a stationary object. Infants prefer moderate complex patterns than high complex patterns where they are unable to make out all the detail (Singlman 146). Another important factor in visual perception is depth perception. Depth perception involves perceiving depth and knowing when objects are near or far away. Infants have some abilitly to interpet special cues involving nearby objecs. They are able to recog nixe objects of the same size at different distances. In a tudy of visual cliff, babies of croling age were tested to see if they could sence the drop off. Twenty seven out of thirtysix would cross the shallow end, while only three out of the thirty six would cross the deep end to reach Mommy. To test infants too young to crawlthey were lowered in to the shallow end and then into the deep end. To test fear they heart rte was monitored. It showed that a babies heart rate was slower when lowered into the deep end as oppose to the shallow end. Though fear causes the heart rate to speed up, slower heart rate shows interest. Infants have not learned to fear fallen cause they have not experienced it but they were able to tell the difference in depth of were the ground is (Singleman 146). Most of the development of visual perception happens in infantcy but grow stronger through childhood and adolescents. Since most of the development of visual perception happenps in infancy, growth on visual perception happens through childhood and adolesants. School age children attention span has increased to where they are able to find a visual simulus and screen out distractions. This age group become able to carry out systematic percetuals searches. They are more able to notice more and more detail the older the child becomes (Singleman 157). When a child reaches adolsents the abilities of childhood grow stronger. Adolestants are able to concertatrate longer and more apt to explore more complex patterens (Singleman 159). Though theres not much to report on the development of visual perception in children and adolsents, adulthood is where is raches its peak and steady begins to decline. Adults reach their peak of visual perception in their twentys then it steadly begins to decline with middle age

Australian National Fund Raising Organization Association Essay

Australian National Fund Raising Organization Association - Essay Example Our group will use many techniques to raise funds for our events and they will be discussed below. Our group is planning two separate events in order to raise funds. There are two broad segments of the society that can be used to raise funds. One segment consists of adults of over 35 years of age and the other is the younger segment which comprises of young people from ages 16 to 35. Our group is planning to make use of both these segments to raise money for our fundraiser. For adults, we are planning a dinner reception where they will get a chance to socialize. In the dinner, notable members will be given a chance to say something for the cause of poverty. The dinner reception will be formal as its target market is mature adult people who will be willing to spend their money on donations. Another, often neglected in terms of fundraising, the segment of the society that can contribute to charity is the younger generation. Young people can also play a big role in raising money given that fundraising is done keeping in mind their needs. Our group is planning to hold a party for the younger population in order to raise funds for the poor. We will be selling food, drinks, and other items in the party in order to raise funds. Different techniques will be used to raise funds for both the events. Older and younger people have different demands and perceptions, and it is vital to plan fundraisers accordingly in order to raise sufficient amounts of a fund. In the dinner reception funds will be raised by tickets and donations. People will be sold tickets and they will be communicated that the money we get from the tickets will go to the charity. In the dinner reception, we will also ask people to donate money towards the cause. Speeches will be made to motivate them to raise money. In the dinner reception, we will offer people drinks, appetizers, and dinner so that people have enough time to socialize, and we can raise more and more money. Donations will be our main target because most of the money from tickets will be used to cover expenses that will be incurred in arranging for the venue and dinner for guests.  Ã‚  

Government price analysis of direct and indirect costs Essay

Government price analysis of direct and indirect costs - Essay Example This may be affected by a number of barriers such as their identification. Many accounting analysts and auditors claim that, in particular, indirect costs cannot be identified in a direct manner. This may affect the analysis of indirect costs within the scope of sales of service or product (Ballard, 2007). Another underlying problem with the analysis of direct and indirect costs by government for pricing and taxation is the cross-sectional relationship of salaries and overheads. The relationship cannot be estimated easily until or unless financial outlook is immersed with analytical elements. These include identification of pools of rate development, weaknesses that might be identified and capital costs associated with the cost rates (Ballard, 2007). Thus, it will not be incorrect to state that every element as noted above needs to be considered during the analysis of indirect and directs costs. Considering the barriers of identification of indirect costs, it makes it complicated to estimate the cross-sectional relationship between the salaries and

The Role of Communication Skills in Planning a Group Project Essay - 9

The Role of Communication Skills in Planning a Group Project - Essay Example Presentations actually are a form of communication that involve, in practice, use of certain literature about the subject matter, presenter, mode of presentation and an effective way of communication. On the audience side, the targeted individuals are referred to as people of concern, importance or potentials of any kind. This two-pronged structure of a presentation environment is very important as far the concept of planning for a presentation is concerned (Griffith University, 2007). The planning thus involves the crux and quintessence of the presentation that comes out to be the face of what has been worked upon. This working involves a comprehensive methodology and practices so that an effective result may be achieved. This resultant is actually the material for the presentation. This essay is about an experience that has been attained during planning for a presentation. This experience is of course based on what actually happens to the presenter planning for this type of communication. It is not different from experiences of a lot of people that plan for public speaking. In fact, this domain of public speaking demands a lot more insight from the presenter into a topic or the subject matter that is being presented. The retrospective analysis of the presenter always notifies to him a self-correcting conclusion that planning is actually the first step towards presentation making. Planning for presentation involves background knowledge, though thin, yet broad and readily available. Individual planning is less preferred for group planning. This is very important to have a consultancy and discussion environment during this stage.  

The State Of Male Privilege In Contemporary Society Sociology Essay

The State Of Male Privilege In Contemporary Society Sociology Essay The state of male privilege within society is greatly debated. Both past and present day academics, have considered the extent of its presence and effects within society in relation to spatial and geographical dimensions. Over time, a vast selection of literature claiming that male privilege heavily affects womens power and opportunity for equality between the sexes has accumulated. This literature is a reaction to issues such as women consistently taking lower wages in the workforce and being repressed by the family unit, cultures, religion, politics and society as a whole. This has resulted in limitations for women due to stereotypical gender roles reinforced in both work and home spaces. However, the increased empowerment of women must be noted through the last century, for example, when women won the right to vote. The last decade witnessed Farrells (1993) works on The Myth of Male Power which has cast a rather different light on the alleged privileges of man. Leaving one to ques tion whether, in fact, it is to women that freedom and privilege belongs; Goldin and Katz (2006) discuss this phenomenon in The reversal of the college gender gap. Are men perhaps, as Farrell (1993) suggests, perhaps the subordinated sex? For the purposes of this essay, male privilege will be defined as the notion that the male population of society is granted rights and statuses based strictly on the grounds of their gender, thus women are denied equal liberties. Patriarchy, as a concept strongly associated with male privilege is defined as a system of social structures and practices, through which men dominate, oppress and exploit women, according to The Dictionary of Human Geography (Gregory et al. 2009). Cosslett et al (1996) highlight the theme of patriarchy is evident within theological structures. They also refer to a verse from the book of Timothy in the New Testament which clearly suggests that women are subordinate to men. Let a women learn in silence with all submissiveness. I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over men; she is to keep silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, bit the woman was deceived and became a transgressor. Yet woman will be saved through bearing children, if she continues in faith and love and holiness, with modesty. (1 Timothy 2.11-15) 1 Timothy 2.11-15 suggests that women are the cause of sin and deception. Eve, as the representation of the female form was deliberately disobedient when provided with the opportunity to exercise her own authority. Christianity interprets this foundational allegory in order to offer an explanation for the sexual hierarchy existing within society. According to Therborn (2004), the world of patriarchy remained part of society throughout the 1900s. The law of the father remained a substantial part of understanding society during the 1900s. The role of the father was to rule over the children continuing into adult life, until they were married. It was generally perceived that men were super-ordinate to their wives, thus men had generational authority. So much so, that despite a general expectation that men should keep a mistress in Latin Europe and America, divorce was incredibly difficult and a uniquely male privilege in China and Muslim countries (Therborn, 2004). Female freedom was incredibly restricted, entirely controlled by their male authority, whether it be by their father or husband. Movement in public spaces for women was physically restrained almost everywhere, however, restrictions varied to a great extent. In North-America and North-western Europe, sexually ambiguous spaces including the streets after dark, restauran ts, theatres and other places of entertainment were usually off-limits to women unless being escorted (Therborn, 2004). However, Therborn (2004) noted that more extreme measures were taken to restrain womens movement elsewhere, for example, in an area of land between the Gangetic plains of the redundant Mughal Empire to the Atlantic coast of Morocco. Women of the upper conservative classes rarely left their female quarters, let alone their home; it was expected that they should only set foot outside their home for events such as their marriage, their fathers death and at their own burial. On the few occasions when they did leave their home, they were wrapped up and veiled. Therborn (2004) discusses not only the restrictions that were placed on womens movement through space but physical restraints places on their body by men. Women in China endured great suffering; forced to conform to the male concept of beauty their feet were broken and bound up as a tribute to their male authority. Jackson (1990) suggests that some homosexual men may have suffered oppression under patriarchy (such as compulsory heterosexuality), as well as the inherent exploitation of women. Brittan (1989, p.4) considers that masculinity or patriarchy assumes that heterosexuality is normal, it accepts without question the sexual division of labour, and sanctions the political and dominant role of men in the public and private spheres. Essentially certain forms of masculinity are privileged, subordinating other forms. Thus, homosexuality is treated as secondary to heterosexuality, just as women are to men. The continued oppression and abuse of women through time and place inspired the sentiments of Mary Wollstonecraft two centuries ago, who wrote, I [only] wish women to have powerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦over themselves, as highlighted by Finch (1996). As the second wave of feminism began to gain strength in Britain in the 1960s, views of the family changed, as feminists argued the family was a fundamental cause of womens oppression (Finch, 1996). Finch (1996) questions whether or not the family represents restriction of opportunities, thus positioning women as subordinates to men within the family unit. He suggests that the gender relations characteristic of the dominant family form are key to understanding a womans place within society. However, Finch (1996) argues that in recent years the family form has altered. Therborn (2004) suggests that the early twentieth century saw de-patriarchalization occurring at an incredible rate. No other social institution through time has been forced to retre at and loosen its hold as much. The retreat of patriarchy from society has been aided by legal enforcement; for example, when women (all over the age of 21) won the right to vote in 1928 as well as the UN declaration of human rights 1948, which stated: Men and Women of full age, without any limitations due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage, and its dissolution Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses So the family form has changed and continues to change; as the first wave of feminism spurred on de-patriarchalization in the early twentieth century followed by the second wave come the 1960s, womens rights within marriage and the family were increasing. A womans ability to succeed in the eyes of Mary Wollstonecraft has to go against the grain of social life (Finch, 1996, p.20), in combination with favourable circumstances allowing a woman to gain financial independence. However, Finch (1996) recognises that this remains a difficult task even at the end of the twentieth century. Callen and Wren (1994) report a sharp rise on the hourly wages that Irish women received relative to their male counterparts during the 1970s, after the introduction of the equal pay legislation and anti-discrimination legislation. Over the past few decades the male-female wage gap has seemingly shrunk by about half. This narrowing was particularly dramatic in the 1980s but since has levelled out and remained more stable (Doms and Lewis, 2007). However, it remains that women only earn approximately 70% of the amount their male colleagues earn for the same jobs. This is evidence that men seem to have privileges which women lack. Simon and Landis (1989) suggest that the wage gap between men and women cannot narrow to equality until both genders have equal employment. Conversely, most of the figures quoted for the male-female wage gap are for production workers in the manufacturing industry, but this group of workers amounts to just 1 in 3 of all employees and less than 1 in 5 of all fe male employees (Callen and Wren, 1994). Thus, it is debateable as to whether this sub-group of the economy can provide an accurate representation of the male-female wage gap. It is also important to note that women are more highly concentrated in the younger age groups within the workforce; 70% women: 52% men were aged 35 or below. This is usually attributed to many women, especially married women, tending to leave the labour market during the years of child-bearing and child-rearing (Callen and Wren, 1994). This can affect the wage gap because generally wage gaps for groups of a similar age, or possessing similar labour market experience are smaller. The wage gap is often around just 7% for those under the age of 35. Despite increasing numbers of women returning to work after having children, many still feel that child-care and other family responsibilities are the main reason that they did not seek out paid work. The presence of a pre-school child (age 0-4) makes it much less likely that a woman will return to work (Callen and Wren, 1994). This effect is not at all mirrored in the case of men. McDowell (1997) suggests that this is due to the binaries that exist in society; the workplace is a male dominated space while the home is a female dominated space. However, Hochschild (2003) notes a staggering increase in mothers returning to work in America with children aged 3 and under, from 34% in 1975, to 61% in 2000. 90% of women that do return to the workforce have found that they still are expected to be responsible for finding and organising childcare. Whilst this increase in the number of mothers that are working outside the home may suggest that women are gaining power over themselves, it may a lso be attributed to a change from Fordist notions of a family wage. Rather, womens work has absorbed the deindustrialisation of America and the decline in mens wages (Hochschild, 2003). In fact, Pratt (2002) predicts that by 2025 women in the UK will possess 60% of the nations wealth, and by 2020 just 47% of the UKs millionaires will be men. Garai and Scheinfield (1968) suggest that the majority of studies report that men advance further in the workforce, whilst women are left behind with the expectation to get married and have children because boys have a clearer concept of their future occupational roles, are more realistic in their vocational planning, and less frequently engaged in unrealistic fantasies and pipedreams about future happiness than girls. Is the privilege and success of men within the workforce due to a lack of aspiration and focus on employment from women? Or is it as Spencer and Podmore (1987) have suggested, that womens careers are unplanned due to an indecisive nature as well as suffering from breaks for child-rearing? This began to change as in the 1960s and 1970s, young womens expectations for their futures were changing, and no longer did they expect to follow in their mothers footsteps. By 1980, levels of male and female graduates had reached parity, but womens greater increase rate did not slow; in 2003, there were 1.35 for every one male 4-year college graduates, and 1.30 for every one male undergraduate (Goldin and Katz, 2006). Thus the 21st century witnessed a reversal in the college gender gap. This effect is not purely a phenomenon of the USA; it is now occurring in nearly all OECD countries. In the three surveys conducted to assess the college gender gap, Goldin and Katz (2006) reported that girls achieved consistently higher grades than boys did throughout high school. In the Wisconsin data of high school seniors graduating in 1957, the high school rank of the median girls was 21 percentile points above the median boy. This difference whilst less extreme still remained with a 16 percent ile point difference in 1992 graduated in the NELS data (Goldin and Katz, 2006). Therefore, demonstrating that girls have an academic privilege over boys. Evidence that the college gender gap and the male-female wage gap is narrowing perhaps lead to Farrell (1993) to question whether male power is a myth, further exploring the idea that men are not the privileged gender. Farrell (1993) considers the many ways in which women are argued to be subordinate to their male counterparts; feeling of powerless through fears of pregnancy, ageing, rape, date rape, and being physically overpowered, less exposure to team sports and its blend of competitiveness and cooperation that is so helpful to career preparation, greater parental pressure to marry and interrupt career for children without regard for her wishes, to name but a few. The conclusion to these experiences of women across the globe is that women have the problem, men are the problem (Farrell, 1993, p.27-28). However, Farrell (1993) then puts a different spin on the concept of gender privilege, claiming that men have a different experience. When a man tries to keep up with payments by working overtime and is told he is insensitive, or tries to handle the stress by drinking and is told he is a drunkard, he does not feel powerful, but powerless. When he fears a cry for help will be met with stop whiningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ he skips past attempting suicide as a cry for help and just commits suicide. Thus menà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦increasingly become the suicide sex. (Farrell, 1993, p27-28) Farrell (1993) suggests that when we look at life expectancy, we acknowledge that blacks dying six years sooner than whites reflects the powerlessness of blacks in American society. Yet a man dying on average seven years sooner than a woman is rarely considered a reflection of powerlessness. If the seven year gap is biological, why was it just a one year gap in 1920? If life expectancy is one of the best indictors of power, then suicide is one of the best indicators of powerlessness, Power is the ability to control ones life. Death tends to reduce control (Farrell, 1993, p27-28). Until boys and girls reach the age of 9 rates of suicide are equal, but from the age of 10, as a boy grows older he is far more likely to commit suicide than a girl of the same age. Between the ages of 20-24, a male is 6 times more inclined to commit suicide than a female. By the age of 85, the suicide rate for men has increased to 1350% higher than for women of the same age. This suggests perhaps that men h ave a less privileged life, for feeling more stressed with work may cause an inclination toward suicide. It is easy to ignore the influence and power that a woman possesses, which a mother can have over her children including both sons and daughters. But it is the mother who is able to make their childs everyday life heaven or hell through discipline, whether that be making their bedtime earlier, taking away desserts, or grounding the child if they do not obey (Farrell, 1993). Few men are able to say they hold this kind of influence or power. Despite the old saying that man is master of the house, many men feel they were visitors in their wives castle. A wife may feel that a mans home is his castle, but from a husbands perspective, his wifes home is his mortgage. In the past, the prohibition against divorce gave a woman security in her workplace (the home), knowing they would be supported. However, no man could say he had a similar security in his workplace; his source of income could fire him, whilst her source of income could not fire her. Even today, now that divorce is a legal option, if a man quits his job, he does not receive unemployment pay. Yet, if she initiates divorce, she is able to take a half share of their possessions. Perhaps then, women possess greater privileges than men? It has been a long held assumption that women spend a greater amount of time on housework and childcare than men spend working, concluding that women work two jobs, men work one (Farrell, 1993, p.37). However, a study by the University of Michigan (1991) found the average man worked 61 hours per week, while the average woman works 56 hours a week. A nationwide study in 1975 found similarly that husbands did 53% of the total work, including childcare, housework, work outside the home, commuting and gardening, while wives did only 47%. A mans freedom or lack of it has been compared to that of a slave; a slave is expected to give up their seat for a woman, or to help her put on her coat like a slave would for their master (Farrell, 1993). Men as opposed to women are expected to do societys most hazardous jobs, like ones slave would have been given (Farrell, 1993).The difference simply being societys rules and expectations of men, such as that of politeness, whilst slaves act out of subservience. A man may feel through expectation that in a sense he is being discriminated against, but there is evidence that women also experience this. Black congressman Shirley Chisholms statement that she faced far more discrimination as a woman than as a black was widely quoted (Farrell, 1993). Although, perhaps the greatest discrimination that American men experience of all, purely because of their gender, is the expectation that men and only men should be conscribed into combat in the case of war. Farrell (1993) explores the idea of the pro-choice woman and the no-choice man, arguing that registering all our 18-year old sons for the draft in the event of war is as sexist as registering all our 18-year old daughters for child-rearing in the event that the country requires more children. Is it fair that an 18-year boy can be barred from all federal employment from the US Post Office to the FBI, as well as facing a $250,000 fine and five years in prison if he refuses to register for the draft? Farrell (1993) suggests that in essence he is subject to being killed purely for not killing; for whilst in prison he will be subject to homosexual rape and thus AIDS because of his reputation for not wanting to fight. Is this fair, while a female who does not register is able to atte nd a state school or a private school with federal aid, get married, have children, or be single and work. In other words, a woman who does not sign up for the draft is free to live life as she pleases, while a man has an obligation to die (Farrell, 1993, p.130). To conclude, the understanding of male privilege has changed greatly over the last century. There are a great many examples over time and place which suggest that women have suffered under the dominance of man, but, it is by no means a universally accepted concept. Farrell (1993) has persistently argued that men find they are subordinates to women and children. Many of the issues around gender discrimination in the workplace in terms of employment and wages, have found improvements in favour of women, to the extent that Pratt (2002) suggests that in the UK women will possess more wealth than men by 2025. However, male privilege remains prominent in other aspects of society, only time will tell whether this will remain or will gradually fade. It is difficult to say how near or far society is from gender equality due to the vast disputes as to the state of male privilege that exists today.

Ku Klux Klan Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Ku Klux Klan   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the southern states of the USA, the period known as â€Å"Reconstruction† created a pressure and fear and hate for the African Americans among many of the southern white people. This was because the African Americans were now free people and had the same rights as the white people. This angered many white people and they created groups to support their beliefs and to allow people with the same ideas to gather together and share their ideas. This is how the Ku Klux Klan came into existence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Ku Klux Klan began in Pulaski, Tennessee on December 24, 1865. Six men devised the earliest version of the Klan. These men were all ex-confederate soldiers. They were trying to think of an idea to cheer them up because they were upset at the outcome of the Civil War. One of the men suggested that they should start a club and the others thought that would be a good idea. They named their club the Ku Klux Klan after the Greek word kuklos, which meant circle. They chose the circle because it symbolizes unity and perfection. Then they created names for the ranks of the men. The leader was called the Grand Cyclops. These men were so pleased at what they had created that they wanted to show everyone. So they wrapped themselves and their horses up in white sheets and rode through their town. They terrified everyone especially the African Americans.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even though the club was only meant for fun it became out of control in the years to follow. After the members saw the effects it had on people they decided to use it to their advantage. They first started as a local racial terrorist group that would play evil pranks on black families by burning their houses and churches. But they soon realized what an impact they had on their enemies. They soon started directing their violent actions toward Jews, Orientals and all other non-white races. They even were violent to Catholics and other religions that were not Christians.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By 1879 the membership of the Klan was around eighty-five thousand members. Many of the visitors that came to the town of Pulaski were inspired by the KKK and when they went back home they decided to set up their own dens and branches of the KKK. There were more than a dozen of these groups all of, which were located in the south.... ... society as well as the USA. They also intend on stopping abortion, outlaw homosexuality, and inter-racial marriages. They believe that everyone should be proud of their race, which means White people have that right to. They feel that all anti-white policies should be disregarded and people be hired, promoted, and given scholarships according to their ability and for no other reasons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although the Ku Klux Klan has gone through many changes since it’s beginning, the present Klan is not that different from the original Klan. Even though the Klan has some new objectives it still believes that the White race is superior to all others. They feel that the only way races can develop their full potential and culture is through racial separation. They believe that every race has the natural right to have pride in its heritage and work to better itself. But why is it that the White race is told that it cannot have White Pride. Works Cited Imperial Klans of America. http://www.kkkk.net/index.html. 13 April 1998 Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. http:/www.kkk.com/intro.htm#stands. 11 April 1998 Ku Klux Klan. http:/www.britanica.com. 1999-2000 Britanica.com Inc.

Methodology (guide 1000) †Research Design Essay

The current study employs a descriptive-comparative design, with nutrition knowledge, lifestyles, and health behaviours being compared. The scores of the two groups (normal weight and obese groups) were analyzed using the Chi-square to determine if they had a relationship with being obese. Tthe study is descriptive in nature as frequencies, means, and frequency distributions were computed to describe the samples used in the study. Samples and Sampling Plan Hong Kong residents between 18 to 40 years old is the population for this research study. Since the total population for the survey is very large, due to time limitations a sample size of 60 was taken for the survey, with 30 allotted to the normal weight group and the rest to the obese sample. Purposive sampling method is adopted for this research. The selection of employees for the experimental group was made on the basis of their participation in the stress management workshop. To ensure the effectiveness of the study, employees belonging to all levels of management, service time, sex groups and age are selected to participate in the survey. There shall be two samples used in the study, namely, 1) normal weight group and 2) the obese group. Both groups shall be chosen using purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is a popular research recruiting method, as the sample size does not have to be determined at the beginning of the project. It is also an advantage for this study, as the sample size will be constrained by time and available resources (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest & Namey, 2005). This study will make use of purposive sample to select respondents. This was based on respondents’ willingness to participate and being available during the period to complete the surveys. Informed consent need to be taken into consideration at the start of any research project. Consent is about participants making a reasonable choice to take part in the study, and, as such, their aspirations need to â€Å"fit† with the goals of the research (Mason, 1997). The researcher will ensure that the participants were fully informed. In addition the researcher discussed the potential consent form with their supervisor and colleagues. This will highlight to the researcher potential ambiguities in meaning, confusing sentences and missing information that are likely to invalidate the measures (Patton, 2000). Informed consent requires the awareness of the researcher that participation is dependant on an individual’s understanding of the goals of the study, and what is expected of the participant. Informed consent will ensure respect for the dignity of the participant (Mack et al. , 2005). Coercion into participation will be avoided at all costs, as the study requires that participation be voluntary (Mack et al, 2005). Thus, informed consent was to ensure the well being of participants as its priority. Additionally, participants would be made aware that their responses would directly contribute to a sharing of knowledge on nutrition knowledge, lifestyles, and health behaviours among Hong Kong residents. In addition, respondents will be reassured that the data collected would be kept confidential. No incentives will be provided for participation in this study. Results collected from the final analyses will be made available to respondents on request. Procedure The respondents who are legible for participation were contacted to ask for their permission in participating in the study. They were sent formal letters or emails indicating this purpose. Calls were made to these individuals to confirm their willingness to participate in the study. This study is meant to research on nutrition knowledge, lifestyles, and health behaviours of normal weight and obese individuals in Hong Kong. The primary source of data is the responses to a questionnaire (see Appendix A). A preliminary study is done on the responses collected from 5 respondents. The questionnaire was then altered based on their suggestions. During pilot testing, wording of some questions is improved to make it more understandable to the respondents. Some questions were eliminated from the questionnaire and new questions were added on the basis of the respondents’ comments. The process was repeated once again to arrive at the final questionnaire to be used on the sample. The data collection period occured over a period of 15 days. The research hypotheses were not divulged rather respondents were only informed that the study aims to determine differences in nutritional knowledge, lifestyles, and health behaviours between normal weight and obese individuals, and so contribute to research on this topic. It is anticipated that respondents are less likely to guess the hypotheses, and so less likely to exhibit socially desirable responses in order to â€Å"please† the investigator. Respondents were called to administer the survey via telephone. Each respondent was told that the completion of the survey will take about 10 minutes and they were asked to email a signed consent form if he is amenable to the terms of participation. In all cases, consent forms were printed and stored separately to consent forms, and each questionnaire booklet was identified only with a respondent number. On completion of the study, respondents were thanked, and were briefly informed of the study’s hypotheses. Respondents were also informed that the results of the study will be made available to them on request following submission of the final thesis. References Adamson, A.J.,  Rugg-Gunn, A.J.,  Butler, T.J.,  & Appleton, D.R. (1996). The contribution of foods from outside the home to the nutrient intake of young adolescents.   Journal of Human nutrition and Dietetics, 9(1), 55-68 Department of Health, Hong Kong. (2006). Obesity. Retrieved on October 20, 2006 from http://www.dh.gov.hk/english/main/main_chp/surveil_pr_dig_kncd_obesity.html.

Impressionist Painters essays

Impressionist Painters essays Since the beginning of time, there have been specific groups that have had revolutionary ideas and acted upon them. Such movements have always been met with disapproval, but usually seem to settle into the mainstream of society. The late in the nineteenth century saw such an occurrence, as an artistic movement was forming in France among a group of painters. The new style of art that this group utilized surprised the public at the time and was met with much hostility. Consisting of Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Sisley, Guillaumin, Cezanne, Pissarro, Morisot, Degas, and Manet, this group observed nature closely, with a scientific interest. The group also set out to refute some of the earlier themes in art, such as Romanticism. This movement was to be called Impressionism, and it would prove to have a large impact on how society viewed art at the time, and would have a lasting affect on the history of art. A knowledge of the history, ideals, and painters involved in this era are all essential to understanding Impressionism to the fullest. The forming of the group was a gradual process. It began as most of the painters went to school together at younger ages. However, the group seemed to be comprised of two main branches. Pissaro, Guillaumin, and Cezanne met at the Academie Suisse around 1861. Monet, Renoir, Sisley, and Bazille became friends at Gleyres in the winter of 1862. These individuals came together by way of Pissaro, who had known Monet since he visited Paris in 1859, and in the mid 1860's he visited the friends as they worked in Marlotte. Records show that Manet and Degas, who were considerably older than the rest of the group, had not met before 1862, and had little to do with the group until about 1866. In 1874, after their ideas repeatedly conflicted with the official Salon, the group went against the Salon in Paris and organized a gallery and exhibition of its own. The group consisted of painters of ...

The gastrointestinal tract The WritePass Journal

The gastrointestinal tract The gastrointestinal tract ABSTRACTINTRODUCTION1.1 The gastrointestinal tract1.2  Ã‚   5-hydroxytryptamine1.3   5-HT4 receptor subtype1.4  Ã‚   5-HT4 receptor agonists and antagonists1.3  Ã‚   Aims of the studyMETHOD  2.1 Krebs solution2.2 Preparation of the tissue2.3 Experimental preparation2.4  Ã‚  Administration of drugs2.5  Ã‚  Statistical analysisRESULTS  3.1 The effects of 5-HT on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse proximal colon3.2 The effects of the 5-HT4 receptor antagonist, SB204070, on the   cumulative addition of 5-HT on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse proximal colon  3.3   The effects of tegaserod on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse  proximal colon3.4  Ã‚   The effects of the 5-HT4 receptor antagonist, GR113808, on the  Ã‚  cumulative addition Tegaserod on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse  proximal colon DISCUSSION  REFERENCESAPPENDIX     Ã‚  Ã‚              Related ABSTRACT The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of 5-HT4 receptor ligands on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse colon. 5-hydroxytryptamine, a neurotransmitter found mainly within the gastrointestinal tract, has been implicated in the contraction and  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   relaxation of smooth muscle within this region. The actions of 5-HT are mediated by at least one or more of seven subtype receptors. The receptor subtype that will be the focus of attention in this study is the 5-HT4 receptor. Segments of the proximal colon obtained from MF1 mice, were cannulated at the anal and aboral ends, and secured horizontally in a water jacketed bath containing oxygenated Krebs solution. The intraluminal distension pressure was controlled by adjusting the elevation of the reservoir, and the volume ejected to the aboral side was recorded and measured via a a pressure transducer and Power Lab system using Chart v4.1.2 software for Windows.. All drugs were administered serosally. Cumulative concentration response curves of 5-HT and tegaserod (agonists) were obtained by adding increasing concentrations of drugs at an interval of 5-15 minutes. The antagonists GR113808 and SB204070 were added to the tissues after regular peristalsis was obtained and allowed to equilibrate for 15 minutes, after which either 5-HT or tegaserod were added cumulatively. All results are expressed as mean ±SEM from number of animals indicated by n. A regular peristalsis was established before the addition of 5-HT (average rate of peristalsis was 77 ±7, n=7. 5-HT facilitated peristalsis at 10-7M and further cumulative addition of 5-HT caused a slow decrease in peristalsis until at 10-4M, rate of peristalsis was inhibited. In all tissues in which peristalsis was inhibited, it recovered once tissue was washed. In the presence of SB204070 and GR113808, there was no significant change in the rate of peristalsis. The addition of tegaserod produced only a slow decrease in peristalsis until peristalsis was abolished in all tissues at 10-4M. The peristalsis abolished by tegaserod could not be re-established in any tissue by washing. In all tissues, it was possible to obtain peristalsis so the effects of drug testing could be established. The addition of the 5-HT4 selective receptor antagonists, SB204070 and GR113808, showed no significant change in the concentration-response curves. The partial 5-HT4 agonist, tegaserod, also did not facilitate peristalsis in the current study. Both these findings suggest that the 5-HT4 receptor is not implicated in the mouse proximal colon INTRODUCTION 1.1 The gastrointestinal tract The digestive system is a vital component of the human body; the overall function being to provide nourishment for over a trillion cells within the body. To be able to do this, the digestive system is specialised to ingest food, propel it through the digestive tract, digest it, and absorb water, electrolytes and other nutrients from the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract (Seeley et al, 2006). The absorbed substances are transported to the cells, via the circulatory system, whilst the undigested substances are eliminated from the anus. The digestive system consists of the main digestive tract, a tube extending from the mouth to the anus, as well as its associated component organs and accessory organs, which are primarily glands located outside the digestive tract that secrete fluids into the digestive tract (Seeley et al, 2006). The component organs include the oral cavity (mouth), pharynx (throat), oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. The accessory organs include three pairs of salivary glands, the exocrine pancreas and the exocrine liver. To enable the homoeostatic environment within the body to be maintained, it is vital that the digestive system is functioning efficiently. The large intestine, which consists of the caecum, colon and rectum, has sufficient homeostatic functions, and contributes to the overall stability of the homoeostatic environment within the body. The colon is the central part of the large intestine, and constitutes the last 150cm of the gastrointestinal tract. It i s approximately a 6cm tube, which extends from the ileum to the anus. Its main function is to store faecal material and regulate its release into the external environment (Smith et al, 2006). It also produces a thick mucous secretion, which lubricates the passage of faecal material during defecation. The gastrointestinal tract of a mouse consists of the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. The mouse colon is similar to the human colon, consisting of the ascending, transverse and descending parts but lacking the sigmoid part (Cook, 1965). http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/GITract.html The main physiological processes of the digestive system are digestion, absorption, motility, secretion, and excretion. Digestion involves the breakdown of larger molecules to smaller ones (i.e. glucose and amino acids) to allow efficient utilisation and absorption of these molecules. The ingested material and secretions are transported across the epithelial cell membrane, mainly within the small intestine.   Subsequently, the transported molecules enter the circulation; a central physiological process of the digestive system. The gastrointestinal tract is approximately a 15 feet long tube, and food must be moved along it to reach the correct sites for digestion, mixing and absorption (Smith et al, 2001). This process, known as peristalsis, is aided by the smooth muscle lining the tract, which contracts and relaxes mixing the ingested material, whilst at the same time propelling it through the tract. Propulsion of the intestinal contents is a crucial part of digestion that depends on the coordinated activity of circular and longitudinal smooth muscles brought about by the peristaltic reflex (Shiinaa et al, 2005).   The peristaltic reflex is initiated by either stimulation of the gastrointestinal mucosa or by stretching of the intestinal wall, resulting in a circular contraction behind the stimulus and an area of relaxation in front of it (Shiinaa et al, 2005).   This wave of contraction moves in the oral-anal direction, and subsequently propels the contents within the lumen forward. The reflex is co-ordinated by the intramural nerve plexuses within the intestine and so, can be obtained even in the isolated tissues. Many studies investigating the mechanisms which mediate intestinal motility have predominantly focused on peristalsis.   Trendelengburg (1917) carried out the first in vitro study investigating the peristaltic reflex in guinea pig ileum. Within the ileum, the reflex was found to consist of contractions of both the longitudinal and circular muscles that were both regular as well as coordinated. The increase in intraluminal pressure, which causes the ileum to distend, is followed by an increase in longitudinal muscle contraction, and subsequently, by an increase in circular muscle contraction, which propels the contents towards the anal section (Trendelengburg, 1917). Gastrointestinal disorders are a common problem in today’s society, and many lead to long term diseases and even morbidity, as well as having a negative impact on healthcare costs (Crowell et al, 2004) However, due to the complexity and the differing functions of the various organs of the GI tract, the treatment of disorders within the tract is a very complex task and has not, as of yet, been fully understood. Diseases of the colon can lead to a whole host of illnesses, including diarrhoea, constipation, Crohn’s disease, Inflammatory Bowel disease, Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS), and many more. Symptoms occurring outside of the GI tract, in particular symptoms associated with ibs, including anxiety, depression and schizophrenia, have been related to the morbidity of such disorders.   It has been suggested by research, that altered levels of the neurotransmitter, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin), may lead to both intestinal and extra intestinal symptoms in IBS, as well as being implicated in other functional bowel diseases It is therefore important that further studies are carried investigating the link between 5-hydroxytryptamine and disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, and to further understand the pathogenesis of these disorders, so that new, more effective treatments can be formulated. 1.2  Ã‚   5-hydroxytryptamine 5-hydroxytryptamine, also more commonly referred to as serotonin, is a monoamine neurotransmitter, and is predominantly synthesised, stored and released in the enterchromaffin cells of the intestinal mucosa (Costedio et al, 2007). According to Gershon et al (1965), 5-HT is synthesised through the action of two tryptophan hydroxylases, TpH1 and TpH2, which are found within the enterochromaffin cells and neurons. Approximately 95% of all mammalian 5-hydroxytryptamine is found within the gastrointestinal tract (Sanger, G.J, 2008) 5-HT initiates the peristaltic and secretory reflex, and transmits information to the central nervous system, by activating both the intrinsic and extrinsic primary afferent neurones (Sikandar et al 2009).   It can also modulate a wide range of biological processes such as mood, cognition, perception, feeding behaviour, smooth muscle contractility, and platelet aggregation (Setola et al, 2003). Within the guinea pig ileum, 5-HT has been found to cause both facilitation and inhibition of peristalsis (Tuladhar et al), and has been found to facilitate peristalsis, when added serosally in the marmoset ileum (Tuladhar et al, 1996). The actions of 5-HT, particularly contraction or relaxation responses, are mediated by at least one or more of seven subtype receptors (Setola et al, 2003), ranging from 5-HT1 to 5-HT7. 5-HT1 and 5-HT2   receptors have been further subdivided, as can be seen in figure 2.With the exception of the 5-HT3 receptor, the other receptors are, at molecular level, G protein couple metabotropic receptors which span the membrane. The 5-HT3 receptor is a ligand-gated ion channel (Barnes et al, 1999). Many 5-HT receptors can now be associated with various physiological responses, ranging from modulation of neuronal activity and transmitter release to behavioural change (Barnes et al, 1999). Receptor Subtype Transduction Mechanism Localization Function Specific Agonists Specific Antagonists 5-HT1A ↓AC (Gi/o) Limbic system (hippocampus, lateral septum, cortical areas), mesencephalic raphe nuclei Hyperpolarization, modulation of neurotransmitter release, anxiolysis, hypothermia, hyperphagia Xaliprofen (2491) S 14506 (1771) Ipsapirone (1869) BP 554 (0556) U 92016A (2739) Tandospirone (2854)* MM 77 (0933) NAN-190 (0553) Spiroxatrine (0631) (S)-WAY 100135 (1253) 5-HT1B ↓AC (Gi/o) Basal ganglia, striatum, amygdala, trigeminal ganglion, vascular smooth muscle Autoreceptor, locomotion, hypophagia, hypothermia, modulation of neurotransmitter release, vasoconstriction CGS 12066B (0638) CP 93129 (1032) CP 94253 (1317) 5-Nonyloxytryptamine (0901) GR 55562 (1054) Isamoltane (0992) SB 224289 (1221) NAS-181 (1413) 5-HT1D ↓AC (Gi/o) Basal ganglia, hippocampus, cortex, spinal cord, vascular smooth muscle Autoreceptor, modulation of neurotransmitter release L-694,247 (0781) GR 46611 (0864) PNU 109291 (2556) PNU 142633 (1985) BRL 15572 (1207) Cyanopindolol (0993) LY 310762 (3078) 5-ht1E ↓AC (Gi/o) Cortex, caudate putamen, claustrum, hippocampus, amygdala Unknown BRL 54443 (1129) 5-HT1F ↓AC (Gi/o) Hippocampus, cortex, dorsal raphe nucleus, uterus Speculative role in visual and cognitive function BRL 5443 (1129) LY 344864 (2451) LY 334370 (3079) 5-HT2A ↑ PLC Forebrain, caudate nucleus, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, olfactory tubercle, vascular smooth muscle, blood platelets Neuronal depolarization, head twitch, hyperthermia, modulation of neurotransmitter release smooth muscle contraction, platelet activation TBC-2 (2592) R-96544(1742) Spiperone (0995) MDL 11,939 (0870) 4F 4PP (0523) Risperidone (2865) 5-HT2B ↑ PLC Brain, stomach fundus (rat), gut, heart, kidney, lung Contraction of the stomach fundus, anxiety BW 723C86 (1059) SB 204741 (1372) LY 272015 (3077) 5-HT2C ↑ PLC Choroid plexus, cortex, limbic system, basal ganglia Hypolocomotion, hypophagia, penile erection, hyperthermia, anxiety, ↓ noradrenalin and dopamine release MK 212 (0941) Ro 60-0175 (1854) WAY 161503 (1801) CP 809101 (3041) 1-Methylpsilocin (3017) N-Desmethylclozapine (1007) RS 102221 (1050) SB 242084 (2901) 5-HT3 Ion channel (Na+, K+, Ca2+) Dorsal vagal complex, hippocampus, amygdala, caudate, cerebral cortex, heart, intestines Anxiety, cognition, pain , reward/withdrawal, vomiting reflex, vasodilation, intestinal tone and secretion SR 57227 (1205) Quipazine (0629) 1-phenylbiguanide (0969) m-chlorophenylbiguanide (0440) MDL 72222 (0640) Tropisetron (2459) Y-25130 (0380) Ondansetron (2891) Granisetron (2903) 5-HT4 ↑ AC (Gs) Cerebral cortex, limbic areas, hippocampus, colliculus, intestines Learning and memory, visual perception, anxiety, motor coordination, arousal, smooth muscle relaxation, modulation of neurotransmitter release Cisapride (1695) RS 67333 (0989)* RS 67506 (0990)* CJ 033466 (3089)* GR 113808 (1322) GR 125487 (1658) RS 39604 (0991) RS 23597-190 (0728) 5-ht5A ↓ AC (Gi/o) Amygdala, hippocampus, caudate nucleus, cerebellum, hypothalamus, thalamus, substantia nigra, spinal cord Modulation of exploratory behavior and locomotion SB 699551 (3188) 5-HT6 ↑ AC (Gs) Striatum, olfactory tubercles, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, stomach, adrenal glands Memory and learning, modulation of neurotransmitter release 5-Methyl-5-hydroxytryptamine (0558) EMD 386088 (2382) SB 258585 (1961) Ro 47-1816/001 (2911) SB 399885 (3189) NPS ALX Compound 4a (3285) 5-HT7 ↑ AC (Gs) Thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, amygdala, GI and vascular smooth muscle, heart Circadian rhythms, smooth muscle relaxation, nociception, hypotension, modulation of REM sleep, learning and memory, LH release AS 19 (1968) LP 44 (2534) LP 12 (2925) Pimozide (0937) SB 269970 (1612) SB 259719 (2726) Figure 2:   A table summarising the properties of 5-HT receptors and subtypes (tocris.com/pharmacologicalBrowser.php?ItemId=5101)    1.3   5-HT4 receptor subtype The receptor subtype that will be the focus of attention in this study is the 5-HT4 receptor subtype. These receptors are located primarily in the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic systems and smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract, and play a role in gastrointestinal motility (Craig Clark, 1989), as well as in anxiety, visual perception, memory and learning. The 5-HT4 receptors on intrinsic primary and afferent neurones, are activated by endogenous serotonin released from enterchromaffin cells, in response to mechanical or chemical stimuli. These neurons release transmitters such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), activating interneurons which in turn stimulate excitatory neurons on the orad side of the mucosal stimulus and stimulate inhibitory neurons on the caudad side (Ji et al, 2004). Subsequently, this results in peristaltic reflexes occurring at the site of the originating stimuli. The effect of 5-HT4 receptor modulated peristalsis has been found in guinea pig ileum (Tuladhar, 1994; Tuladhar et al, 1995). Also, stimulation of 5-HT4 receptors have been reported to enhance the peristaltic reflex in the rat distal colon (Kadowaki et al, 2002). 5-HT4 receptor agonists, such as tegaserod and 5-HT, stimulate gastrointestinal motility and secretion through release of acetylcholine from excitatory neurones. It is important to note that 5-HT4 agonists strengthen, rather than directly activate the peristaltic reflexes 1.4  Ã‚   5-HT4 receptor agonists and antagonists The 5-HT4 receptor agonists that will be focus of this study will be tegaserod and 5-hydroxytryptamine (as mentioned above), and antagonists will be GR113808 and SB204070. Tegaserod [3-(5-methoxy-1H-indol-3-ylmethylene)- N-pentyl-carbazimidamide] hydrogen maleate, is a partial 5-HT4 agonist that has been implicated in gastro-intestinal motility.   In the guinea pig ileum, tegaserod was found to stimulate peristalsis by increasing the number of circular muscle contractions (Ji et al, 2004).   It has been used in the treatment of symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, including abdominal pain, bloating and constipation (Mà ¼ller-Lissner et al, 2001). The responses mediated by 5-HT4 receptors have been greatly facilitated by a number of highly selective antagonists e.g. GR113808, SB204070 SB204070 (1-Butyl-4-piperidinyl)methyl-8-amino-7-chloro-1,4-benzodioxane-5-carboxylate hydrochloride) is a selective 5-HT4  serotonin receptor antagonist. In the guinea pig distal colon, SB204070 was found to antagonize 5-HT4 receptor mediated-contractions Although the nature of the antagonism is quite complex, it has been suggested that SB204070 acts has a pseudo-irreversible antagonist (Wardle et al, 1994). GR113808 (1-methyl-1H-indole-3-carboxylic acid, [1-[2-[(methylsulfonyl)amino]ethyl] -4-piperidinyl]methyl ester) is a potent, selective 5-HT4 receptor antagonist. In the guinea-pig ascending colon,  GR113808  behaved as an antagonist of 5-hydroxytryptamine -induced contraction, with a high affinity for the 5-HT4 receptor (Gale et al, 1994). 1.3  Ã‚   Aims of the study The aims of our investigation were to investigate whether 5-HT4 receptor ligands were able to modulate the peristaltic reflex within the mouse proximal colon. This study also allowed us to investigate the effect of pharmacological manipulations that have been designed to study the role of 5-hydroxytryptamine on the peristaltic reflex within this region of the intestine. This study was undertaken using a range of 5-HT4 receptor agonists and antagonists. METHOD   2.1 Krebs solution The Krebs-Heinslet solution was prepared at the start of the experiment. To prepare one litre of the solution, 2.1g of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) and 2g of glucose were dissolved in 300ml of dissolved water. 40ml of the Krebs-Heinslet concentration was added to the solution, and the preparation was made up to 1 litre using distilled water. It was found that 5 litres was an adequate volume for the experiment, therefore this was prepared by multiplying each quantity by 5. The marriotte bottle containing the Krebs-Heinslet solution was attached to the apparatus, and used to wash out each organ bath three times, and then added to the required level. 2.2 Preparation of the tissue The experiment was carried out using MF1 mice. The animals were killed by cervical dislocation, and the GI tract was removed. Segments of the proximal colon (approx. 2-3cm) were carefully dissected on a polystyrene board, taking care not to puncture the colon and to disturb it as little as possible. This section was then quickly transferred to the water jacketed glass bath, which contained Krebs-Heinslet solution aerated with 95% oxygen and 5% CO2, and maintained at 37OC.   This was to prevent hypoxia of the tissue and abnormal temperature. All tissues were equilibrated for at least 20 minutes prior to the start of the experiment. The oral end of the proximal colon was cannulated to the inflow glass tube, which was connected to the reservoir containing saline solution, and secured with thread. The intraluminal contents of the colon were allowed to expel naturally via peristalsis, brought about by the raising of the height of the reservoir by 4cm. After the contents had been expelled, the reservoir was lowered and the aboral end was then cannulated to the opposing outflow glass tube. The tissue was then left to equilibrate for at least 20 minutes prior to the start of the experiment.   Finally, to induce peristalsis, the intraluminal pressure was raised, by raising the reservoir by 4cm for at least 15 minutes, until peristalsis became regular and the drugs could be administered; the height of the reservoir needed to achieve steady peristalsis was determined in preliminary experiments. 2.3 Experimental preparation The outflow tube was connected, via a plastic tube, to a T glass tube, which was open to the atmosphere. Changes to the volume of fluid driven into this vertical tube during peristalsis were measured as a pressure changes, and recorded using pressure transducers connected to a quad bridge amplifier and Power Lab system using Chart v4.1.2 software for Windows. Before the proximal colon was cannulated, the computer software was calibrated to zero, and set to commence recording. Figure 3: A schematic diagram representing apparatus used to study peristalsis in mouse proximal colon. The peristalsis trace on the power lab software was recorded as a series of peaks and troughs. During peristalsis the peaks were formed when the tissue contracted, and the troughs formed when the tissue relaxed. This cycle was repeated with each peristaltic stroke. 2.4  Ã‚  Administration of drugs After regular peristalsis had been established, the drugs could be administered serosally. A cumulative response curve for the agonist tegaserod was obtained by adding increasing concentrations of tegaserod (0.01 µM– 10 µM). In the preliminary experiments, it was found that tegaserod 10-2M did not allow the tissue to exhibit peristalsis sufficiently, and was too potent, therefore the highest concentration used was 10-3M. Each concentration had a 15 minute contact time with the tissue before the next concentration was administered. The volume ejected and the rate of peristalsis was measured and recorded. Changes to the rate of peristalsis were then compared to the control values obtained 15 minutes prior to administering the first drug. In the preliminary experiments, it was found that washing the tissue between each drug administration had a negative effect on peristalsis, and subsequently the tissue didn’t recover. Therefore drugs were administered continuously wit hout washout. This process was repeated with the agonist, 5-HT, with concentrations ranging from 0.1 µM-100 µM. To examine the effects of GR113808 and SB204070 (antagonists)   on 5-HT and tegaserod responses, either   antagonist was added to the tissues after regular peristalsis was obtained and allowed to equilibrate for 15 minutes, after which either 5-HT or tegaserod were added cumulatively and their effects on peristalsis were measured as described above 2.5  Ã‚  Statistical analysis All results are expressed as mean ±SEM from number of animals indicated by n. The difference between the values was determined by using the unpaired t test when two groups were compared and using the one way ANOVA followed by Fisher’s PLSD when more than two groups were compared.    2.6  Ã‚   Consideration of safety issues The chemicals used within this investigation were obtained from Tocris bioscience. To ensure the safety of all members of the group throughout the duration of the investigation, a chemical risk assessment form (COSHH) was formulated and signed by all members. This form highlighted all the chemicals that were to be used throughout the experiment, and the risks and precautions associated with each of them. It was ensured that the precautions were adhered to at all stages of the experiment, and general laboratory regulations were also put into place i.e. no eating or drinking in labs, wearing a lab coat etc.    RESULTS   The peristaltic reflex was investigated within the mouse proximal colon. Segments of the proximal colon (approximately 3cm in length) were cannulated in vitro, and regular peristalsis was achieved by raising of the intraluminal pressure. Peristalsis was distinguished as circular muscle contractions arising from the oral side and travelling to the anal side. The proximal part of the colon was distinguished from the distal part by striations across the surface, and also by it containing softer faecal pellets 3.1 The effects of 5-HT on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse proximal colon A regular peristalsis was established before the addition of 5-HT (average rate of peristalsis was 77 ±7, n=7).   The fluid was ejected from the oral to anal direction. The addition of 5-HT 10-7M caused a significant increase in the rate of peristalsis. At this concentration the rate of peristalsis was 101  ± 8, n=7, which was a substantial increase from the control value. Further cumulative addition of 5-HT caused a slow decrease in peristalsis until at 10-4M, rate of peristalsis, at 56  ± 19, n=7 , was lower than the control at the beginning. In all tissues in which peristalsis was inhibited, it recovered once tissue was washed. 3.2 The effects of the 5-HT4 receptor antagonist, SB204070, on the   cumulative addition of 5-HT on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse proximal colon   3.3   The effects of tegaserod on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse  proximal colon 3.4  Ã‚   The effects of the 5-HT4 receptor antagonist, GR113808, on the  Ã‚  cumulative addition Tegaserod on the peristaltic reflex in the mouse  proximal colon                   DISCUSSION   Gastrointestinal disorders within humans and animals have become much more common, and as such more effective treatments need to be formulated. Research has implicated 5-hydroxytryptamine within these disorders, and thus the 5-HT receptors, which are involved in gastrointestinal motility, are potential targets for treating such disorders. The present investigation was designed to study the peristaltic reflex within the mouse proximal colon, and further, to investigate the 5-HT4 receptor, which has been found to modulate peristalsis in the guinea pig ileum (Tuladhar et al., 1995). Peristalsis is the principle mechanism controlling the movement of chyme within the intestine, and takes place without the conscious control. The nervous pathway of the peristaltic reflex is entirely intrinsic (Bulbring et al,1958), and therefore we can obtain this reflex even in isolated tissues. The method used to study peristalsis was similar to the one used by Trendelengburg (1917), in which the peristaltic reflex was triggered by raising of the intraluminal pressure, allowing the measurement of different parameters of peristalsis, including the rate of peristaltic stokes and the volume of intraluminal fluid ejected to the anal side with each peristaltic stroke. Within the present study, regular peristalsis was obtained so the effects of the 5-HT4 receptor ligands could be established. Craig and Clarke (1991) suggested that the 5-HT4 receptors had a facilitatory effect on 5-HT in the guinea-pig ileum and this was further confirmed by Tuladhar et al (1993). However, this finding was not reciprocated within the mouse proximal colon. Cumulative addition of 5-HT produced facilitation of peristalsis within the mouse proximal colon, characterised by an increase in the number of peristaltic strokes per hour and thus the rate of peristalsis at 10-7M.. This facilitation was observed at concentrations up until  Ã‚   10 -4M, where inhibition of peristalsis was observed. At this concentration, 5-HT desensitised the tissues so no further peristalsis could be established. However, peristalsis was re-established in 6 out of the 7 tissues after washing of the tissues. This facilitatory and inhibitory effect of 5-HT was also observed in various studies carried out by Tuladhar et al, Bulbring Crema (1958) and others. Therefore, this study has shown that the addition of 5-HT in vitro can modulate peristalsis within the mouse proximal colon. At lower concentrations, 5-HT facilitates peristalsis, whereas at higher concentrations 5-HT can both facilitate and inhibit peristalsis. In the present study both GR113808 and SB204070 failed to affect the facilitatory effect of 5-HT in the mouse proximal colon. GR113808 and SB204070 are both highly potent 5-HT4 receptor antagonists (Gale et al., 1994; Wardle et al., 1994). This suggests that the 5-HT4 receptor is not implicated within the mouse proximal; had it been implicated both SB204070 and GR113808 would have antagonised the 5-HT4 receptor mediated contractions, and there would have been a significant decrease in the rate of peristalsis. This is in contrast to the findings by Costall et al (1993), where the 5-HT4 receptor was implicated in the guinea pig ileum, in which it exhibited a facilitatory effect on 5-HT. In the guinea-pig ileum tegaserod has also been shown to facilitate peristalsis ( Ji et al, 2004 ),   which was not observed in the current study.   This further suggests that the 5-HT4 receptor is not implicated within the mouse proximal colon; as tegaserod is a partial 5-HT4 agonist, had 5-HT4 receptor been implicated, facilitation of peristalsis would have been observed. The inhibitory effect of 5-HT on peristalsis has been reported to involve the 5-HT7 receptor (Tuladhar et al, 2003). Further studies are required to examine the receptor involved in the inhibitory effect of 5-HT in the mouse colon and to examine whether 5-HT7 receptors are involved.   It is interesting to note that the inhibitory effect of tegaserod could involve a completely different mechanism as peristalsis could not be   recovered by washing in any tissue, in contrast with 5-HT. In conclusion, the current study has shown that 5-HT can both facilitate and inhibit peristalsis. However, the 5-HT receptors mediating these effects are likely to be different from the ones involved in the modulation of peristalsis in the guinea-pig ileum. Further studies are required to establish the receptors involved. REFERENCES ARBAB SIKANDERA, S. V. R., A,   AND KAUSHAL KISHOR PRASADA (2009). Role of serotonin in gastrointestinal motility and irritable bowel syndrome. Clinica Chimica Acta, 403, 47-55 BARNES, N. M. SHARP, T. (1999). A review of central 5-HT receptors and their function. Neuropharmacology, 38, 1083-1152. BULBRING, E., LIN RC   (1958)  Ã‚   The effect of intraluminal application of 5-hydroxytryptamine and 5-hydroxytryptophan on peristalsis; the local production of 5-HT and its release in relation to intraluminal pressure and propulsive activity. J Physiol   2006 Aug 15;575(Pt 1):1-2. COOK, M. J. (1965) The anatomy of the laboratory mouse. London (New York): Academic Press. COSTEDIO, M., HYMAN, N. MAWE, G. (2007). Serotonin and Its Role in Colonic Function and in Gastrointestinal Disorders. Diseases of the Colon amp; Rectum, 50, 376-388. CRAIG, D. A. CLARKE, D. E. 1990. Pharmacological characterization of a neuronal receptor for 5-hydroxytryptamine in guinea pig ileum with properties similar to the 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 252, 1378-1386. CROWELL, M. D. 2004. Role of serotonin in the pathophysiology of the irritable bowel syndrome. British journal of pharmacology, 141, 1285-93. GALE, J. D., GROSSMAN, C. J., WHITEHEAD, J. W., OXFORD, A. W., BUNCE, K. T. HUMPHREY, P. P. (1994). GR113808: a novel, selective antagonist with high affinity at the 5-HT4 receptor. British journal of pharmacology, 111, 332-8. GERSHON, M. D., DRAKONTIDES, A. B. ROSS, L. L. 1965. Serotonin: Synthesis and Release from the Myenteric Plexus of the Mouse Intestine. Science, 149, 197-9. JI, S. W., PARK, H., CHUNG, J. P., LEE, S. I. LEE, Y. H. 2004. Effects of tegaserod on ileal peristalsis of guinea pig in vitro. Journal of pharmacological sciences, 94, 144-52. Kadowaki, M., Wang, X.B., Shimatani, H., Yoneda, S. Takaki, M. (2002). 5-HT4 receptor enhances the propulsive power of the peristaltic reflex in the rat distal colon. Naunyn-Schmied. Arch. Pharmacol, 99, 62-65. MARGARET E. SMITH, D. G. M. (2001). The digestive system- Basic science and clinical conditions, Elsevier ltd. MULLER-LISSNER, S. A. (2001)   Tegaserod, a 5-HT(4) receptor partial agonist, relieves symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome patients with abdominal pain, bloating and constipation   Aliment Pharmacol Ther ROD R. SEELEY, T. D. S., PHILIPSTATE(2006). Anatomy and physiology. McGraw Hill Higher Education SANGER, G. J. (2008). 5-hydroxytryptamine and the gastrointestinal tract: where next? Trends in pharmacological sciences, 29, 465-71. SETOLA, V. ROTH, B. L. (2003). Why Mice Are Neither Miniature Humans nor Small Rats: A Cautionary Tale Involving 5-Hydroxytryptamine-6 Serotonin Receptor Species Variants. Molecular Pharmacology, 64, 1277-1278. SHIINA, T., SHIMIZU, Y., SUZUKI, Y., NIKAMI, H. TAKEWAKI, T. (2005). Measurement of the propelled liquid by isolated hamster ileum as a parameter to evaluate peristalsis. European Journal of Pharmacology, 517, 120-126. SIKANDER, A., RANA, S. V. PRASAD, K. K. (2009). Role of serotonin in gastrointestinal motility and irritable bowel syndrome. Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry, 403, 47-55. TULADHAR, B.R., COSTALL, B. NAYLOR, R.J. (1995). Evidence of a 5-Ht3 Receptor-Mediated Facilitation of the Emptying Phase of the Peristaltic Reflex in the Isolated Guinea-Pig Ileum. Br J Pharmacol, 114, P374-P374. TULADHAR, B.R., COSTALL, B. NAYLOR, R.J. (2002). Modulation of 5-HT4 receptor function in the rat isolated ileum by fluoxetine: the involvement of endogenous 5-hydroxytryptamine. Br J Pharmacol, 136, 150-6. TULADHAR B.R   (2003)   5-HT7 receptors mediate the inhibitory effect of 5-HT on peristalsis in the isolated guinea-pig ileum. Br J Pharmacol WARDLE, K. A., ELLIS, E. S., BAXTER, G. S., KENNETT, G. A., GASTER, L. M. SANGER, G. J. (1994). The effects of SB 204070, a highly potent and selective 5-HT4 receptor antagonist, on guinea-pig distal colon. British journal of pharmacology,  Ã‚  Ã‚   112, 789-94. HTTP://WWW.TOCRIS.COM/PHARMACOLOGICALBROWSER.PHP?ITEMID=5115. APPENDIX Table 1: 5-HT alone    S.No    -log C (M)    RATE OF PERISTALSIS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AVG SEM N 1 Before 58.7 56.9 71.6 114.9 73.9 77.1 82.2 77 7 7 2 7.00 126.8 77.6 95.1 115.3 119.4 76.8 95.6 101 8 7 3 6.00 120.4 58.1 77.3 102.7 127.7 92.1 70.2 93 10 7 4 5.00 42.9 26.1 61.9 104.5 93.0 67.9 93.7 70 11 7 5 4.00 0.0 0.0 37.9 105.7 113.7 29.8 105.0 56 19 7 Table 1 shows the rate of peristalsis after adding the agonist,5-HT 10-8 – 10-4 M, to mouse proximal colon. The values are expressed as mean ±SEM. Table 2: 5-HT in the presence of SB204070    S.No    -log C (M)    RATE OF PERISTALSIS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AVG SEM N 1 SB-204070 7.00 79.4 129.3 44.1 31.2 101.6 79.2 82.8 78.2 12.4 7 2 5-HT 5.00 149.9 124.6 71.3 30.2 102.7 58.8 95.1 90.4 15.3 7 3 5HT 4.00 113.8 132.2 19.7 27.9 96.3 51.2 130.3 81.6 18.1 7 4 5HT 3.00 90.8 114.9 23.0 25.9 99.2 77.2 0.0 61.6 16.8 7 5 5HT 2.00 0.0 122.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 55.8 0.0 25.4 17.9 7 Table 2 shows the rate of peristalsis after adding 5-HT 10-5 – 10-2 in the presence of the 5-HT4 antagonist, SB204070 10-7M, to the mouse proximal colon. The values are expressed as mean ±SEM. Table 3: Tegaserod alone       S.No    -logC (M)    RATE OF PERISTALSIS 1 2 3 4 5 AVG SEM N 1 Before 42.6 45.6 151.3 45.6 116.6 80.3 22.5 5 2 8.00 40.9 40.9 127.3 41.3 123.0 74.7 20.6 5 3 7.00 38.7 35.2 107.4 32.6 0.0 42.8 17.5 5 4 6.00 31.1 38.1 97.9 27.9 123.3 63.7 19.6 5 5 5.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.0 45.4 9.0 9.0 5 Table 3 shows the rate of peristalsis after adding the agonist, tegaserod 10-8 – 10-5 M, to mouse proximal colon. The values are expressed as mean ±SEM. Table 4: Tegaserod in the presence of SB204070    S.No    -logC (M)    RATE OF PERISTALSIS 1 2 3 4 5 AVG SEM N 1 BEFORE 99.4 107.5 121.2 124.3 105.4 111.5 4.7 5 2 SB-204070 7.00 64.5 98.1 65.1 59.8 53.6 68.2 7.7 5 3 Tegaserod 8.00 100.1 105.8 91.3 110.8 54.3 92.5 10.0 5 4 Tegaserod 7.00 107.3 122.2 74.5 72.5 59.7 87.3 11.7 5 5 Tegaserod 6.00 111.4 113.4 99.2 90.5 83.7 99.6 5.7 5 6 Tegaserod 5.00   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   0.0 0.0 104.9 213.4 75.7 78.8 39.5 5 Table 4 shows the rate of peristalsis after adding tegaserod 10-8 – 10-5 in the presence of the 5-HT4 antagonist, SB204070 10-7M, to the mouse proximal colon. The values are expressed as mean ±SEM. Table 5: Tegaserod in the presence of GR113808       S.No    -logC (M)    RATE OF PERISTALSIS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AVG SEM N 1 BEFORE 33.0 108.2 129.9 50.7 31.9 34.1 35.0 64.8 17.6 7 2 GR113808 6.00 15.6 82.6 121.6 47.6 25.2 18.4 19.6 52.0 17.2 7 3 Tegaserod 8.00 37.8 267.2 105.9 48.0 22.2 26.12 21.5 75.5 33.8 7 4 Tegaserod 7.00 71.3 339.7 112.2 49.7 17.4 24.00 9.2 89.0 43.9 7 5 Tegaserod 6.00 74.4 277.4 49.0 37.2 19.9 14.53 0.0 67.4 36.2 7 6 Tegaserod 5.00 20.1 0.0 0.0 30.7 -1.5 10.02 0.0 8.4 4.7 7    Table 5 shows the rate of peristalsis after adding tegaserod 10-8 – 10-5 in the presence of the 5-HT4 antagonist, GR11380810-6M, to the mouse proximal colon. The values are expressed as mean ±SEM.

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